Decide what you want to know

It is important to clarify what you want to learn from monitoring. This will help you to choose monitoring practices and monitoring sites that answer your questions and support the decisions you want to improve. Focusing on what is most relevant to you makes it easier to incorporate regular monitoring into your farm management program.

Being clear on why you are monitoring can motivate you to make monitoring a regular practice. Consider what soil health means for your farm and business. Monitoring is far more powerful when it aligns with your goals and vision for your farm by supporting what you are trying to achieve and answering questions that are relevant to your business.

There are a lot of options to choose from when monitoring soil, plant and landscape health. When deciding what to monitor, there are a few key questions to ask:

• What information would you use to make decisions?
• Do you want to track your progress towards your goals in improving soil, plant or landscape health?
• Do you want to investigate soil constraints or plant health issues?
• What is your budget for monitoring?
• How much time do you have available for monitoring?

Start simple

A few simple, hands-on methods and basic tools are all you need to get started. You don’t need to invest in expensive equipment. You can learn a lot about soil health by digging a cube of soil (20 cm x 20 cm x 20 cm) with a spade and looking at root depths, soil colour, soil structure and counting the number of earthworms. Plant and landscape observations are easy to capture by taking photographs of ground cover and photo points of the paddock while you are there.

Start by recording three to five observations from a point on your landscape that you can easily return to for repeat measurements. Avoid the temptation to set up a large number of monitoring sites while you are learning. Starting with a small number of sites that represent the main soil types on your farm makes it easier to continue monitoring and is less overwhelming than a large number of sites.

Deciding where to set up monitoring sites

Deciding where you will monitor depends on what you want to know. Setting up monitoring sites where you can return to observe trends over time also improves the quality of the monitoring data you collect. Starting with one to three monitoring sites makes it easier to find the time to return to monitor again in the future.

Some considerations when deciding where to monitor include:

• Soil types: Where possible, assess soil health from each of the main soil types on your farm. Soils can vary across the landscape, following the landforms and changing according to the top, middle and bottoms of slopes. Each monitoring site should have uniform slope, soil type, vegetation and land use. In hillier areas, monitoring across the slope, rather than up and down a slope, is advisable.
• Avoid areas that are not typical of the paddock: It is important to avoid areas such as stock camps, gateways, troughs, fence lines, fertiliser dump spots, headlands, rocky outcrops, shelter belts, tracks and gullies.²Local Land Services NSW, Soil testing and sampling, accessed 23 September 2026.
• Consider comparison areas: You may wish to set up a monitoring site on a paddock that is performing well to use as a comparison to other paddocks that are not performing well that you are targeting for improvement.³D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.⁴Dr A Schapel and Dr M Retallack, Best Practice Management Guide: on soil health in Australian Vineyards Part A: Chemical and Physical. Ecovineyards, 2024. Or you may wish to compare different management practices. It is important that comparison sites have similar soil texture, colour and depth characteristics.

Record the location of monitoring sites to allow you to easily find them again. You can use a written map or GPS coordinates. Take care if you set up a physical marker that locates your monitoring site in the paddock to ensure it does not pose a risk in terms of livestock or human injury or machinery damage. Livestock can be inclined to rub on posts, which can attract them to the monitoring site and change the conditions as a result.

How to collect quality monitoring information

Regardless of what type of monitoring is done, the real key to making monitoring worthwhile is consistency and taking note of the context in which any measurements are taken. For example, soil health properties are impacted by changes in soil moisture, which can be hard to predict. To get good quality data:

• Monitor at similar times of the year. Choose a time of year where you usually have good soil moisture and actively growing plants. If you can, monitor when the soil is moist but not saturated; one week after 10–20 mm of rain is ideal.
• Make sure each monitoring site has a consistent soil type and uniform slope. Sites should be at least 20 m away from fence lines, tracks, stock camps and the edges of areas.
• Use a consistent monitoring methodology. Consider the choice of protocol, laboratory and type of lab test to ensure your data is reliable.
• Record the conditions when monitoring. Note recent rainfall, crop stage, management history and soil type to help you to interpret the results and compare across years. Take care not to take soil or plant samples immediately after the addition of fertiliser or soil amendments.
• Take more measurements at each site to provide more accuracy. As a general rule of thumb, aim for three to five replications of each measurement at a monitoring site.

Set up your data collection system

Before you start monitoring, decide how you will collect data consistently at each site over time. By keeping a record of your results, lab reports, notes and photos in one place, you will build a powerful history of how your soils and landscape respond to management.

It is important to have a method to record:

• Paddock name and site location
• Date and time
• Current land use and weather conditions
• Results from the tests
• Photographs.

There are a number of ways you can approach this. Record keeping tools farmers use to keep track of monitoring data include:

• Handwritten recording sheets collated in a file
• Digitally collating and saving photos in a folder with the date and location taken
• Excel spreadsheets for collating data over time
• Investing in apps that will track monitoring data for you.

Deciding on one method that best fits your needs and keeping it consistent over time is important to help gather quality data. Many farmers find that establishing a workflow in the field helps make monitoring data collection efficient and methodical. Recording sheets can be set up to follow the logical flow of data collection and can support this process to ensure you don’t miss anything.

Allocate a budget for monitoring

Soil, plant and landscape monitoring options come in all shapes and sizes. Some methods, like photo points, visual soil and crop inspections and recording biodiversity such as birds, can cost nothing to get started. Spending a few hundred dollars will enable you to invest in monitoring equipment like a refractometer or penetrometer. Sending samples off to labs for analysis and/or paying for professional support can mean investing more.

The real return on investment comes from monitoring regularly over time. Monitoring becomes more valuable the more that you do it, as you get to see the trends over time. It also has the potential to pay for itself and even help you save money, since tracking soil, plant and landscape health can lead to input cost savings or access to new markets.

Schedule the time to monitor

Some monitoring takes only a few minutes, like snapping a photo at the same spot every season or pulling out a crop plant to check root biomass. Other assessments, like taking soil tests, pasture assessments or biodiversity surveys, might take a few hours or a day. Any monitoring is better than none, and you can start small. Choose what suits your goals and scale, and remember you don’t need to do everything at once. See the Choosing monitoring practices section for more on the main soil, plant and landscape monitoring options, tests and tools.

It is always important to allow a generous amount of time for monitoring and not rush through the process, especially the first time you monitor a site, as it takes the longest. Soil monitoring can be fun, so choose a time of year with good weather and take the time to enjoy the process. Some farmers pack a picnic and enjoy being out in nature for the day. Having company and help also makes the process faster and more enjoyable.

Create a monitoring kit

As you start to develop a regular monitoring practice, having your monitoring equipment stored in a tub in one place so it is ready to pick up and go makes the process easier. The equipment needed in your kit will depend on the monitoring tests you plan to do. Once you have decided on your monitoring indicators, you can develop an equipment list to check that the items are all in the kit before you head out to the paddock. This helps save time that would otherwise be wasted if you get out in the paddock and find something is missing.

There are many measurements that can indicate soil, plant and landscape health. Soil, plants and landscapes are complex systems and all the indicators of health are interrelated. No single individual measurement can universally capture soil, plant or landscape health across all farming systems and contexts. A collection of indicators is always more useful.

Suggestions for selecting monitoring practices:

• Remember to start simple. You may wish to choose three to five tests from the lists below, or choose one soil monitoring resource to guide you.
• Choose practices that align with why you are monitoring, the questions you are asking and the decisions you are making to help you to collect data that is useful, actionable and relevant.
• Choose measures that cover the interrelated components of soil. Measuring aspects of soil physical health, biological health and chemical health, including a plant indicator and a landscape indicator, will build a more holistic picture.
• Choose practices you have the time, budget and skills to measure.

A number of excellent free resources that provide detailed information on how to undertake the monitoring practices have been included throughout this practice guide. This guide will connect you with the best resources to find out how to monitor soil, plant and landscape health in the field.

Get to know your soil characteristics, variability and landscape

Monitoring soil, plant and landscape change is made easier by starting with a solid understanding of what types of soil are on your property and where your farm sits in the broader landscape and ecology of your region. Knowing your soil types and where they sit in the landscape can help inform where to monitor, how to interpret results and what management questions to ask. For example, you would consider different monitoring locations if your landscape includes deep and fertile river flat soils compared to one with slopes that are prone to erosion and thin, vulnerable soils.

Soil characteristics

A good place to start is by understanding soil texture and cation exchange capacity. These are inherent characteristics of soil that change very little over time and cannot be changed by management practices. These properties vary by location and are influenced by the type of rocks from which the soil has formed and the soil’s position in the landscape. These characteristics provide insight into how soil holds water and nutrients, what land use the soil is best suited for, and how to maximise its potential and minimise the risk of soil degradation.

Soil texture

Soil texture is the proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil, which affects its water and nutrient holding capacity. Soil texture is easy to assess in the field by wetting some soil in your hands and observing how it feels and behaves.

Cation exchange capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the soil’s ability to hold onto positively charged ions (i.e. cations), such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and aluminium. Higher CEC means greater nutrient storage. CEC increases with the soil’s clay and organic matter content and is related to soil texture, with lighter, sandier textured soils having lower CECs and heavier clay soils having higher CECs.⁹NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Cation Exchange Capacity, accessed 23 September 2026. CEC is measured in the laboratory through analysis of a soil sample.

Soil profile

A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the soil that shows the different layers, or horizons, that build up from the surface down to the parent material. Each horizon within a soil profile can have a different texture, and not all horizons are always present in every soil profile. The Australian Soil Quality Knowledge Base explains, ‘For example, three soils may have the same sandy surface, but one remains sandy with depth (deep sand), another gradually increases in clay (sandy earth), and the third has a layer of sand over a layer of clay (duplex)¹⁰Soil Quality Knowledge Base, Soil groups and soil classification, accessed 23 September 2026..’ Understanding the soil profile in your landscape is important because differences in soil texture, and therefore CEC, through the depth of the profile can affect how soils behave and are best managed.

Table 1. Characteristics of soil layers, or horizons, in the soil profile.*

*Soil Quality Knowledge Base, Soil groups and soil classification, accessed 23 September 2026.

Observing soil profile in the field

Observing the soil profile commonly involves digging a soil pit to identify the horizons, textures and pH levels at depth as a way to understand soil characteristics, best uses and soil constraints. There are other ways to do this without excavating a large area of soil, including observing the soil profile at natural or man-made exposed faces such as river banks or road cuts. Taking a soil sample at depth using a hydraulic soil corer can also show differences in colour, texture, root depth and pH at depth.

Using soil maps for soil classification information

Soil groups and soil classification maps can help identify and understand the soil profiles across a landscape. It is always advisable to ground-truth these soil maps through in-field observations.

Identify the limitations to production for each soil type

Getting to know your soil texture, CEC and soil profile will help you understand the properties of your soil, including which aspects of soil health you are most able to change and which are likely to be beyond your capacity to influence.

Table 2. Properties of different soil textures.*

*Department for Environment and Water, ‘Understanding the properties of South Australian agricultural soils’, Department for Environment and Water – Soils of South Australia, 2021, accessed 23 September 2026.

Soil health indicators

Soil health indicators are measurable properties of soils that can be used to assess soil health and function. Soil health consists of physical, chemical and biological factors that are interrelated.

• Physical properties of soils relate to the ability of the soil to support plant growth by allowing root growth, drainage, aeration and retention of moisture and plant nutrients.¹¹T Goldammer, ‘Organic Crop Production’, Chapter 4: Soil management on organic farms: Soil Properties. APEX Publishers, 2017, accessed 23 September 2026.
• Biological properties of soils are related to the diversity of organisms that make up the soil food web, including bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, nematodes, micro-arthropods, earthworms, insects and small invertebrates.¹²T Goldammer, ‘Organic Crop Production’, Chapter 4: Soil management on organic farms: Soil Properties. APEX Publishers, 2017, accessed 23 September 2026. These organisms help to decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients and support plant health.¹³MyLand, ‘Introduction to soil properties: three key traits every grower should know’, 2024, accessed 23 September 2026.
• Chemical properties of soils reflect the ability of the soil to hold and supply nutrients for plant growth.¹⁴T Goldammer, ‘Organic Crop Production’, Chapter 4: Soil management on organic farms: Soil Properties. APEX Publishers, 2017, accessed 23 September 2026.

Soil health monitoring in the field

Visual soil health assessments performed in the paddock are a simple and cost-effective way to understand soil health. These are best carried out once a year, or every two years at a minimum. Combining these in-field assessments with laboratory testing can provide a complete picture of soil health and function.

Photo points

A photo point at the monitoring site helps record the context and conditions, as well as track changes over time. Including a landscape shot and a close-up of ground cover gives a more complete picture, while photos of the soil profile capture changes in soil structure and colour over time.¹⁵D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.

For a really simple approach to photo point monitoring check out the Soils for Life Soil Health Assessment Guide and Record Sheet.

Physical soil health indicators

Topsoil depth: The topsoil is the upper layer of the soil where plant roots, soil organic matter and soil microbes are most active. The deeper the topsoil, the better a soil functions.¹⁶D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.

Soil aggregate stability: Soil aggregate stability is the ability of soil aggregates to maintain their structure under stress. Stable aggregates hold together when placed in water, indicating the soil has a stable structure. Unstable aggregates can slake (fall apart) and disperse (make the water cloudy) when placed in water. Soil texture, organic matter, soil microbes and plant roots can influence soil slaking and dispersion. Dispersion can also be a sign of high sodium.¹⁷D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.

Water infiltration: Water infiltration measures how well the soil can absorb rainfall and provide water for plant growth and soil biological function. Infiltration is a function of soil texture, soil structure and pore spaces and can be an indirect measure of soil compaction.¹⁸Local Land Services NSW, Snapshot: A practical tool for assessing the current condition of your soil health, pasture condition, native vegetation and farm water, 2019.

Soil strength and compaction: Soil strength refers to the soil’s resistance to penetration or deformation, while compaction refers to the density of the soil, or how tightly soil particles are packed together. Both are influenced by soil texture and soil moisture and indicate the ease with which plant roots can grow and move through the soil.¹⁹Local Land Services NSW, Snapshot: A practical tool for assessing the current condition of your soil health, pasture condition, native vegetation and farm water, 2019. As soil strength and compaction increase, plant roots are impeded and their growth rate slows.

Biological soil health indicators

Soil smell: Healthy soils have a distinctive, ‘earthy’ smell due to actinobacteria and other beneficial microbes. The actinobacteria present in healthy soils produce geosmin, which in turn produces a distinctive slightly sweet smell. Unhealthy soils often have a sour or metallic smell.²⁰Meat & Livestock Australia, Module 6: Healthy Soils, Key indicators of soil health, accessed 23 September 2026. No smell likely indicates a lack of biological life.²¹Noble Research Institute, ‘Simple ways to measure soil health improvements in real time’, accessed 23 September 2026.

Earthworm count: Earthworms play a major role in decomposing soil organic matter and cycling nutrients. Higher numbers of earthworms indicate conditions that are favourable for soil health and plant growth.²²M Retallack, ‘The Great Aussie Ecovineyards Earthworm Count’, Retallack Viticulture, accessed 23 September 2026.²³G Shepherd, ‘Visual Soil Assessment, Volume 1, Field guide for cropping and pastoral grazing on flat to rolling country’, Landcare Research, 2000.

Soil organism diversity: Soil organism diversity refers to the presence and variety of earthworms, dung beetles, springtails, ants, nematodes, mites, potworms, millipedes and other visible invertebrates. Having a rich diversity of soil organisms is important for soil health, as they contribute to mineral cycling, maintaining soil structure and regulating pests and diseases.²⁴D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.

Chemical soil health indicators

Soil pH: Soil pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the soil, which is related to nutrient availability and plant species suitability.²⁵P Hazelton and B Murphy, ‘Interpreting soil test results. What do all the numbers mean? Third Edition’, CSIRO Publishing, 2016. A pH of 7 is neutral, while less than 7 is acidic and greater than 7 is alkaline. In the field, soil pH can be measured using a kit available from nurseries, hardware stores and rural suppliers. In-field kits test pH measured in water and should be used only as a guide to soil pH, compared with pH measured in calcium chloride (CaCl₂) solution, which is a more consistent laboratory measurement (see Soil laboratory testing).²⁶B Lake, Understanding soil pH, NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, 2000. Accessed 30 September 2026.

Soil laboratory testing

Laboratory testing provides detailed information on the underlying characteristics of your soil, including nutrient deficiencies, excesses and imbalances. Laboratory testing can also identify microbial diversity and composition, including active and total bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi. The frequency of soil testing depends on how the results are used to inform decision making, and can range from yearly testing to three- to five-year intervals.

Bulk density: Bulk density is the weight of soil in a given volume, which provides an indication of the soil’s physical condition. It increases with compaction and depth, with high bulk density reflecting reduced pore space in the soil. This can limit the ability of plant roots, water and air to move through the soil and increase the risk of runoff and waterlogging.²⁷K Brown and A Wherrett, ‘Fact Sheets: Bulk Density – On Farm Use’, Soil Quality, accessed 23 September 2026.

pH: Soil pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the soil which is related to nutrient availability and plant species suitability.²⁸P Hazelton and B Murphy, ‘Interpreting soil test results. What do all the numbers mean? Third Edition’, CSIRO Publishing, 2016. A pH of 7 is neutral, while less than 7 is acidic and greater than 7 is alkaline.

Laboratory testing provides the most accurate measurement of soil pH.²⁹B Lake, Understanding soil pH, NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, 2000. Accessed 30 September 2026. There are two different forms of pH lab tests: pH measured in water or pH measured in calcium chloride (CaCl₂) solution. Results in calcium chloride solution give a lower value than pH measured in water and are closer to the true soil pH in the field. When comparing results over time, it is important to be consistent with the same pH laboratory test.³⁰Soil Quality Knowledge Base, Soil pH, 2024, accessed 30 September 2026.

Electrical conductivity (EC): EC measures the electrical conductivity through the soil solution, which indicates soil salinity. A higher EC generally means a greater concentration of dissolved salts, which can affect plant water uptake and growth.³¹N Palombi and D Blaesing, ‘Soil test interpretation guide for dryland pastures in Tasmania’, accessed 23 September 2026.

Soil organic carbon: Soil organic carbon is a measure of the carbon contained within soil organic matter, which includes decomposing plant, animal and microbial material. Soil organic carbon supports nutrient cycling and microbial activity, helps to aggregate soil particles (i.e. improve structure) to provide resilience to physical degradation, increases water storage and availability to plants and protects soil from erosion.³²Agriculture Victoria, ‘Soils and carbon for reduced emissions’, 2023, accessed 23 September 2026.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC): CEC measures how well the soil is able to hold and exchange positively charged ions, known as cations, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and aluminium. It provides a buffering effect to changes in pH, available nutrients, calcium levels and soil structural changes. CEC influences soil structure, nutrient availability, soil pH and the soil response to fertilisers and soil amendments.³³P Hazelton and B Murphy, ‘Interpreting soil test results. What do all the numbers mean? Third Edition’, CSIRO Publishing, 2016. CEC increases with clay and organic matter content so lighter, sandier textured soils tend to have a lower CEC, while heavier clay soils tend to have a higher CEC.³⁴NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Cation Exchange Capacity, accessed 23 September 2026. CEC is usually estimated by displacing the exchangeable cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium) with another strongly adsorbed cation, and then determining how much of the strongly adsorbed cation is retained by the soil.³⁵P Hazelton and B Murphy, ‘Interpreting soil test results. What do all the numbers mean? Third Edition’, CSIRO Publishing, 2016.

Soil nutrient levels and ratios: Several lab tests analyse nutrient levels in the soil to identify deficiencies, excesses or imbalances. Common nutrients tested for include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium and trace elements.

Soil biology testing: Soil biology testing can measure the abundance, types or activity of organisms in the soil. Different methods, such as DNA, phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA), microscopy, respiration and enzyme testing, measure different parts of the soil biological system. These tests can help to build a picture of the soil food web and track how soil biology responds to management.

Plant health indicators

Plant indicators are measurable characteristics that are used to assess the health, growth and condition of plants. In pastures, indicators such as groundcover, pasture biomass, plant density, species composition and growth rate can be used to monitor changes in pasture condition over time. At the individual plant level, characteristics such as root growth, nutrient deficiencies, drought stress, pest attack, disease, Brix, sap pH and legume nodulation can be used in the field to monitor changes over time. Laboratory testing can also be used to identify nutritional deficiencies and guide fertiliser decisions.

Plant health monitoring in the field

Observing plant health in the field reveals how well the overall soil and plant system is functioning, including whether plants can access the minerals in the soil. The types of plants growing can also point to underlying soil constraints.

Pasture indicators

Ground cover: Ground cover is any plant material that covers bare soil and protects it from exposure, degradation and erosion. A high percentage of ground cover also helps maintain soil temperature and soil organic matter, reduces evaporation of water and provides a habitat for soil biology.³⁶D Hardwick & R de Lastic, ‘Soil HASH 1 Manual’, Soil Land Food, 2025.

Pasture composition: Pasture composition or diversity refers to the mix of different plant species growing in a pasture, and can be measured as the proportion of annual grasses, perennial grasses, legumes, and broad-leaved plants. Composition is an indication of pasture ecosystem health and helps to ensure year-round quality feed for livestock and improved climate resilience.³⁷L Kahn and J Earl, ‘Pasture Management Checklist for the Northern Tablelands of NSW’, Agricultural Information and Monitoring Services, 2021.

Quantity of pasture: Pasture quantity is the herbage mass of a pasture measured in kilograms of dry matter per hectare (kg DM/ha), and is used to calculate feed budgets and set appropriate stocking rates.³⁸L Kahn and J Earl, ‘Pasture Management Checklist for the Northern Tablelands of NSW’, Agricultural Information and Monitoring Services, 2021.

Pasture growth rate: Pasture growth rate measures the quantity of pasture growth over time and is expressed in kilograms of dry matter produced per hectare per day (kg DM/ha/day). It is measured by calculating the change in pasture quantity over a set period, taking into account the average stocking rate over that same period.³⁹L Kahn and J Earl, ‘Pasture Management Checklist for the Northern Tablelands of NSW’, Agricultural Information and Monitoring Services, 2021.

Weeds: Monitoring and recording weed populations can provide insight into whether current management strategies are working. Weeds that germinate in the paddock reflect soil physical, chemical and biological conditions and can indicate soil compaction, waterlogging and low biological activity, as well as nutrient cycling, deficiencies and excesses.⁴⁰D Sandborn, ‘Weeds Are an Indicator of a Soil’s Health’, Michigan State University Extension, 15 August 2016, accessed 26 June 2026.

Individual plant indicators

Rooting depth, health and density: Rooting depth, health and density refers to how deep plant roots grow into the soil, how healthy and well-developed they are, and how many roots are present within a given area of soil. Plant roots can be examined by digging a 20 cm square hole to a depth of 20 cm and lifting the soil out to reveal whether soil compaction is restricting plant root growth and limiting access to nutrients and moisture.⁴¹Soilcare, ‘Northern Rivers Soil Health Card’, 2024.

Nutrient deficiencies: Visual signs of nutrient deficiencies, such as changes in colour, dead tissue, stunted growth or deformities, are a helpful diagnostic tool, but by the time visual signs are evident, the deficiency is well advanced. It is worth confirming these signs with laboratory testing of soil or plant leaf tissue.

Plant drought stress: Visual signs of drought stress in plants, such as wilting, are a late-stage indicator that photosynthesis and transpiration are compromised due to lack of water.

Insect pests and diseases: The presence of plant pests and diseases can indicate overall plant health and help identify and resolve challenges early. Since healthy plants can better resist pests and disease, their presence can be a valuable indicator of plant nutrition.⁴²Advancing Eco Agriculture, ‘The plant health pyramid’, accessed 23 September 2026.

Brix: Brix is a measurement of the sugar content in plant sap, taken using a refractometer. Brix provides an indication of plant sugar levels, as well as overall plant nutritional health.⁴³R Lemus and J White, ‘Brix level in your forage: what does it mean?’, Mississippi State University, 2022, accessed 23 September 2026.

Sap pH: Sap pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of plant sap, tested using a pH meter. It can give an indication of the plant’s nutrient status as well as its disease and insect susceptibility. A sap pH of >6.4 is caused by an imbalance of anions nitrogen, phosphorus or sulfur and signals that insect attacks are highly likely, whereas a sap pH of <6.4 indicates a possible deficiency in cations calcium, magnesium, potassium and/or sodium, making disease problems likely.⁴⁴J Kempf, ‘Sap pH as a susceptibility indicator’, 2021, accessed 23 September 2026.

Legume nodulation: Legume nodulation is the process of nodules forming on the roots of legumes, where nitrogen-fixing bacteria (rhizobia) convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form the plant can use. Checking whether roots are healthy and nodules are present and active can indicate whether legume plants are fixing nitrogen.⁴⁵Meat & Livestock Australia, ‘Assessing nodulation in legumes: How to assess legume nodulation’, accessed 23 September 2026.

Plant laboratory testing

Laboratory testing provides information on how well the overall soil and plant system is functioning. Alongside soil tests, plant laboratory tests can indicate if plants are able to access the minerals in the soil.

Leaf tissue testing: Leaf tissue testing measures the total nutrients in dried plant matter, reflecting the accumulation of nutrients over time. Samples are usually taken from one leaf position on the plant (e.g. newest mature leaf). Leaf tissue tests often confirm nutrient deficiencies that are already visible and work best for evaluating soil health programs. There are established ranges of nutrients for most crops.⁴⁶J Garley, ‘The difference between leaf tissue and sap analyses’, Progressive Crop Consultant, 2024, accessed 23 September 2026.

Plant sap testing: Plant sap testing measures dissolved nutrients in cell fluid, reflecting the current nutritional status of the plant. Sap testing requires both old and new leaves to be sampled and tested separately, and provides information on nutrient deficiencies before visual symptoms appear. Results are used to guide nutrient applications, and trends throughout the season help refine and adjust application protocols.⁴⁷J Garley, ‘The difference between leaf tissue and sap analyses’, Progressive Crop Consultant, 2024, accessed 23 September 2026.

Landscape health indicators

Broadening monitoring to include landscape health helps take a big-picture view of the whole farming ecosystem. This can reveal trends in landscape health over time, some of which can serve as early indicators of progress or early warnings that things are going backwards.

Soil and plant health indicators sit within the broader context of ecosystem and landscape health. Together, they contribute to the water cycle, mineral cycle and the capture of sunlight through photosynthesis, while the diversity of soil organisms and plants offers a measure of overall biodiversity.

Simple landscape monitoring methods

Land degradation: Identifying and monitoring areas of land degradation over time, such as erosion, waterlogging, areas of salinity or acidity, loss of organic matter and soil fertility decline, helps flag when land use is creating long-term problems and corrective measures should be taken.⁴⁸NSW Department of Environment and Heritage, ‘Soil Degradation’, accessed 23 September 2026.

Biodiversity: Monitoring bird life, natural vegetation and beneficial insects such as pollinators can indicate how well the agricultural ecosystem is functioning, including whether current farming practices are degrading the ecosystem or regenerating it.

Whole farm visual landscape walks: Regular landscape walks are a good starting point for observing what’s happening on your property over time, which can be incorporated into your day-to-day activities. Some useful practices when walking the landscape include:

• Identifying where water and sediment moves and collects during rainfall events
• Noticing ground cover and soil surface crusting and condition
• Observing edge effects around paddocks.

Photo points: Establishing photo points is a simple method to monitor the farm landscape and record changes over time. Taking photos at least once in the growing season per year, at the same place and time of year is a good way to start. This can be expanded to include a photo once in the growing season and once in the non-growing season, since soil surface conditions can be harder to spot when vegetation cover is high. Monitoring in both seasons gives a more complete picture.

Whole of farm mapping: Creating a map using satellite imagery from sites like Google Earth or Cibo Labs can help record and track changes in the landscape over time.

Soil, plant and landscape monitoring data fits together to build a holistic assessment of the condition of your land and the trends emerging over time as a result of your management practices. While empirical data on its own is important in monitoring, it is important to apply your observations and understanding of the landscape when interpreting results and drawing connections between the various pieces of data you’ve collected.

Look for trends against baseline measures

When tracking improvements in soil, crop and landscape health over time, look for trends over time in relation to groundcover, infiltration, earthworm numbers, root depth and the numbers of birds and insects. Stay alert for red flags that can indicate negative trends, like persistent erosion or poor recovery of pastures after grazing. All of these are clues that tell you how your landscape is responding to your management and in what direction things are moving.

Take a long-term approach

It can take time for changes to emerge in agricultural ecosystems, so be prepared to monitor as part of your long-term plan and make sure not to discount the value of monitoring if the data you collect is not what you expect.

Use monitoring resources to guide interpretation

There are a number of resources available as guides for interpreting monitoring results. Many of these resources offer a suggested scoring system for assessing physical soil health indicators in the field, which provides a consistent way to see trends in these results over time. When deciding which laboratory tests to use, it is important to understand how you will interpret and use the data. This might involve seeking advice from a professional service provider, or learning to interpret the results yourself through training or by researching methods outlined in some of the resources below.

Integrate in-field assessments with laboratory tests

Looking at in-field data alongside laboratory test data can help reveal the connections between the two. For example, low organic carbon can be linked to poor soil structure and low biological activity. Tracking all of these together over time provides a more complete picture of soil health compared to tracking any one aspect alone. In-field assessments can change more quickly and therefore provide evidence of positive or negative trends that could be missed when looking at laboratory tests in isolation.